WORLD RELIGIONS
WORLD RELIGIONS
4 Semester Hours
THEO 379Y; CRN 10668
College of Health Arts
Joliet, IL 60435
Spring 2005
Dr. Al Campbell
8355 Doubletree Drive North
Crown Point , IN 46307
Cell-(219) 928-5598
H –(219) 942-5595
Fax-(219) 942-1315
campbell@wolverton-mountain.com
I. Course Description:
This course examines the major religious traditions of the world from the standpoint of human religious experience and the variety of cultural forms which influence the expression of that experience. The various religions and religious traditions are examined thematically and structurally for comparison as well as contrast. Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Taoism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism, and other major religious movements will be presented and examined.
Religions of the World. 9th ed.
Prentice Hall 2004
Internet Power Point Presentations:
https://wolverton-mountain.com/collegeclass/StFrancisU/StFransis.htm
II. Course Objectives:
A. To describe and discuss beliefs and the history of the major religions of the world.
B. To analyze the themes and structures of major religious traditions around the world.
C. To discuss and analyze cross-cultural religious traditions, exploring such major themes as birth, death, rebirth, creation, wisdom, and values.
D. To examine the relationship, similarities, and differences among world religions today.
E. To analyze the impact of the social sciences- especially psychology, sociology, and anthropology- on both the understanding and practice of religion.
F. To value religions pluralism in our world.
G. To demonstrate critical thinking and communication skills in the context of World Religions.
H. To prepare and analyze an approved topic, through an in-depth inquiry of the topic. (Independent Study Component)
Academic misconduct and
plagiarism: Students have an obligation to exhibit honesty in carrying out
their academic assignments. Students may be found to have violated this
obligation if they plagiarize or cheat. Plagiarism is presenting the work of
others as one’s own; cheating is taking, giving, or accepting any illicit
advantage for any course work inside or outside of this classroom.
N.B. Any plagiarism will result in an F for the course.
ADA statement: All students with disabilities who need accommodations should alert
the instructor within the first week of school and contact the Disabilities coordinator, Pat Vivio in the Office of Disability Services in Tower Hall, Room S210. She can also be reached by email (pvivio@stfrancis.edu ) or phone (815)740-3204.
USF Mission statement: As a Catholic university rooted in the liberal arts, we are a welcoming community of learners challenged by Franciscan values and charism, engaged in a continuous pursuit of knowledge, faith, wisdom, and justice, and ever mindful of a tradition that emphasizes reverence for creation, compassion, and peacemaking. We strive for academic excellence in all programs, preparing women and men to contribute to the world through service and leadership.
Accessibility: I look forward to teaching this class. If you need anything or have any problems, the following information will provide you with access to assistance. Please feel free to contact me whenever necessary.
Expectations of Students:
- All papers must be typed double spaced (font 12) with a 1” margin on all sides.
- Every week’s paper must reach the professor on the due date. The due date the beginning of the next weekly unit.
- Enclose a stamped self-addressed envelope for the return of your papers. Otherwise, they will not be returned.
- Careful, well-thought-out answers should be your priority. Each paper must be in your own words – please do not copy word for word from your text.
A final grade for each course is given by the instructor at the end of each semester according to the following:
A. Excellent: the student performs in a consistently active, accurate and independent manner. An ability is demonstrated not only to master the
course material but also to synthesize and evaluate what has been learned.
Communication skills reflect and are commensurate with the student’s
ability.
demonstrates creative thought and independence but does not give evidence
of a consistency in excellence.
usually shows little initiative in attacking new problems and indicates some
progress in individual development.
An incomplete grade (1) is not generally an option in this course. Only for serious reasons will the instructor grant an incomplete grade (e.g., serious illness, death in the family). Students have 6 weeks of the next semester to complete the necessary work to attain a grade.
Grade Scale: A = 90 – 100%
B = 80 – 89%
C = 70 – 79%
D = 60 – 69%
F = below 60%
Special FDI instructions: All papers must be typed double-spaced (font 12). Each week’s material must reach the professor on the due date. Enclose a self-addressed stamped envelope for the return of your paper; otherwise, the paper will not be returned.
Course Requirements.
1. Students are required to read all selections from the required text. You are encouraged to visit the companion website to this text www.prenhall.com/hopfe to further your knowledge of each of these religions.
2. Students are required to visit one religious service different from their own – Hindu, Muslim, Jewish, Protestant, Orthodox, Catholic – and prepare a written report of two pages on their visit (see Field Trip Format in the Appendix). This report should be completed by the sixth class and will be a part of the Class Participation grade.
3. Students are normally required to write a weekly reflection paper on some aspect of the weekly readings. These papers are approximately one to two pages in length and worth 25% of the total Class Assignment grade.
4. Students are required to review two videos relating to World Religions. These videos are readily available at your local video store (see Film Reports in the Appendix). These assignments will be graded as a part of the Class Participation grade.
5. Students are required to complete an Independent Study Component on a topic approved by the instructor (see Section Three on the ISC) The Independent Study component is worth 25% of the total grade.
III. Independent Study Component
Guidelines for the Independent Study Component:
Courses offered in the Health Arts Program are designated as upper division and are also four semester hours of credit. Consequently, the Independent Study Component becomes an integral part of the Health Arts courses that adds both breadth and depth to each course. It distinguishes those courses taken in the Health Arts Program from ones that have similar titles but are lower division and also from those that are three semester hours of credit.
Each student will write a 12-page research papers that will an aspect of world religions. The topic will be approved before beginning the project. Students are encouraged to pick a topic that either has applicability to their professional work or personal life.
Research Paper: There will be one paper due on the date indicated, dealing with one of a selection of topics on World Religions. The purpose of this paper is to develop a relevant thesis with regard to an important religious personality or theme, and if applicable, to relate that person or theme to the broader elements of history.
Students should be aware of the following points with regard to evaluating the paper:
1. Form, appearance, and style: proper length (papers should be long enough, but also concise and not excessively exceed page limits); proper English grammar; avoidance of clichés and colloquialisms.
2. Organization: papers should follow the standard components of an Introduction, Body, and Conclusion. The introduction sets up the entire paper, as it normally includes a clear statement of your thesis. This paragraph should be approximately 8-10 sentences long.
3. Sources: papers should use primary and secondary sources and exhibit a careful reading of the material. Primary sources are writings and documents from the period being studied. These include essays, speeches, and other writings from a particular religious personality; or contemporary articles relating to a religious theme.
4. Exposition: papers will be graded on your ability to analyze, synthesize, and interpret the appropriate material.
General Instructions for All Assignments
1. All papers must be typed, double-spaced with a 1” margin on all four sides.
2. Mail papers directly to the instructor. Do not send to the University. A FAX option for submitting assignments will be available each week. My fax number is 219.942.1315. You also have the option emailing assignments to me at campbell@wolverton-mountain.com
3. Enclose a self-addressed stamped envelope with all assignments so that the papers can be returned quickly.
4. You have weekly assignments nearly every week. Remember to send them on time.
5. Feel free to call me if you wish to discuss anything regarding your work. If I am not available, leave your name, message and phone number and I will return your call as soon as possible.
I am looking forward to working with you and will do everything I can to assist you.
Course Content
January 10th Introduction Overview thru Native American Religions
Religions of the World pages 1-49
January 17th African Religions
Religions of the World pages 50-70
January 24th Hinduism
Religions of the World pages 71-115
January 31st Jainism
Religions of the World pages 116-126
February 7th Buddhism
Religions of the World pages 127-155
February 14th Sikhism
Religions of the World pages 156-167 (first movie report due on 2/14)
February 21st MIDTERM (due February 27th)
February 28th Chinese Religions
Religions of the World pages 168-202
March 7th Shinto
Religions of the World pages 203-219
March 14th Zoroastrianism
Religions of the World pages 220-240
March 21st Judaism
Religions of the World pages 241-279
March 28th Christianity
Religions of the World pages 280-332
April 4th Islam
Religions of the World pages 333-370 (second movie report due on 4/4)
April 11th Baha’i
Religions of the World pages 371-382 (friend trip report due on 4/11)
April 18th
ISC (due April 20th) and FINAL EXAM (due April 23rd)
IV. Resource List:
There are innumerable texts on the study of World Religions. Here are my personal favorites, all of which include large bibliographies to help you in your research paper.
General Texts:
Fisher, Mary Pat. Living Religions. 4th ed. Prentice Hall, 1999.
Another excellent introduction to religions. More readable than above. Good bibliography.
Livingston, James C. Anatomy of the Sacred. Macmillan, 1989.
An excellent introduction to religion, divided thematically: sacred symbol, myth, and doctrine; sacred ritual; deity; cosmogony; theodicy.
Smith, Huston. The Religions of Man. Harper Collins, 1994.
The standard text in many colleges, “intelligent, clearly written…reveals the spirit of each faith” (NY Times)
American themes:
Ahlstrom, Sydney E., A Religious History of the American People, 2 vols., Yale University Press, 1972.
The most comprehensive history of religion in America to date. Extensive bibliography.
Hudson, Winthrop S. Religion in America. 8th ed. McMillan, 2000.
An excellent survey. Superior chapters on the colonial and post-bellum period of American religion.
Mary, Martin E. Pilgrims in their Own Land. Penguin Books, 1984.
The formost writer and authority on religion in America. Page for page, “it is the most engaging one-volume history of American religion we now have.” (New York Times Book review).
The Jerome Biblical Commentary. The best biblical commentary in the English language.
WORLD RELIGIONS
Textbooks and Resource List
Ahomed, Leila. Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots. New York: Oxford
Press, 1991.
Allen, Michael, and S.N. Murkherzee. Women in India and Nepal. Cannberra:
Australia. Annu Printing, 1982.
Blakely, Thomas and Denise Thornton, (eds.) Religion in Africa: Experience and
Expression. London: Heislmann, 1994.
Boyce, Mary. Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. London And Boston: Rutledge
and Kegan, 1979.
Carmondy, Denise. Women and World Religions. New York: Prentice Hall, 1998.
Christopher, John. The Islamic Tradition. New York; Harper, 1972.
DeBarry, William, (ed.) The Buddhist Tradition in India, China, and Japan. New
York: Modern Library, 1969.
Davis, Winston. Japanese Religion and Society. Albany: NY, Suny Press, 1992.
Eberhand, Wofman. Guilt and Sin in Traditional China. Los Angeles: University
of California Press, 1967.
Elwood, Robert S. and Barbara McGraw. Many People Many Faiths. 6th edition.
New York: Prentice Hall, 1999.
Finkelstein, Louis, (Ed.). Jews: Their History, Culture, and Religions. 2 Vols.
New York: Harper, 1949.
Haddad, Yovonne. The Muslims of America. New York: Oxford University Press,
1991.
Hank, Nhat. The Heart of the Buddhist’s Teaching: Transforming Suffering into
Peace, Joy, and Liberation. Benkley, CA, Parallox Press.
Herchel, Abraham. Between God and Man: An Interpretation of Judaism. New York:
Free Press, 1969.
Heschel, Susammah, (Ed.) On Being a Jewish Feminist. New York: Schocken Books,
1983.
Hutchinsom, John. Paths of Faith. New York: McGraw-Hill Company. 1981.
Smith, Houston. The World’s Religions: Our Great Wisdom Tradition. San Francisco:
Harper, 1991.
Ware, James, R. The Sayings of Confucius. New York: Mentor Books, nd.
Young, William, A. The World’s Religion: Worldviews and Contemporary Issues.
Englewood Cliffs: NJ, Prentice Hall, 1995.
INTRODUCTION: RESPONDING TO RELIGIOUS
DIVERSITY
Religious diversity in the United States and throughout the world is increasing. Students today can expect to be a part of many faiths in a community, a workplace and social groups. The development and growth of this diversity is an important social phenomenon of our time and one that extends far beyond the confines of religion.
Thinking through our responses to religious diversity can help us to be more conscious of how we respond to diversity of other kinds, as well.
The attitude we hold toward those whose religions differ from our own has pragmatic ramifications as well as philosophical ones. It influences our willingness to grant freedom of religious expression to them regardless of their practices and beliefs.
Week One
The study of religion, interesting in its own right, is also necessary to a proper understanding of history, art, and politics. There is, too, a social value in being informed about the world's religions: it helps people understand each other and get along as technology accelerates globalism.
Given the vast structural and creedal differences that exist among the world's religions, the quest for a single definition of religion is probably futile. Nevertheless, a study of religion can be organized around a set of features (e.g., beliefs about the afterlife, systems of worship, etc.) or a set of questions (e.g., from what culture did a religion emerge? what were some major historical developments?)
Various thinkers over the past two centuries have tried to describe how religion first originated. Early attempts belied Darwinian influence and posited an evolution from primitive religions to sophisticated ones. Later attempts focused on the psychological and social functions of religion in order to explain its origins. It is probably true, however, that given the complexity of religious phenomena; no single theory is adequate by itself.
This textbook will approach the study of religion by organizing religions that are actively practiced according to region of origin: the Americas, Africa, India, China/Japan and the Middle East. The text assumes and, to some degree demonstrates, that religions within the same region bear similarities.
Please observe the following manner of self-directed study for this course.
1. After reading the brief summary of the given chapter (as above), the student should turn to the course website for the given chapter (www.prenhall.com/hopfe) and click on the indicated chapter if the student has Internet access. Read the chapter OBJECTIVES to have a basic idea of the goal of the chapter.
2. Then, read the chapter from the text.
3. OPTIONAL: Explore the “Destinations” section of each chapter for additional insights into that chapter's material. These sections may give you ideas for your INDEPENDENT RESEARCH PAPER.
4. Before the MIDTERM and FINAL, try taking the Self-Test for the indicated test chapters. The questions are similar to the actual test.
BASIC RELIGIONS
Chapter One: Characteristics of Basic Religions
In describing the belief and practice of prehistorical and pretechnological cultures, the term basic religion is preferable to the term primitive religion, because the latter unfairly connotes backwardness and lack of sophistication. The former is not without fault in this regard but perhaps has the advantage of unfamiliarity.
A study of basic religions can inform a study of religion in general because elements of basic religions are found in all other religions. Apparent continuity between basic religions and non-basic ones, then, can serve to raise the larger question of whether or in what way so-called basic religious elements are fundamentally related to human nature.
The category of basic religions is also used to mark a historical distinction, since it is said to include the religions of Neanderthal, Cro-Magnon and Neolithic humanity. The reconstruction of the religious systems of these ancient peoples, however, is necessarily speculative. Therefore, the relation of so-called Stone Age religion to contemporary basic religions must not be assumed in a facile way but rather approached in a cautious manner.
Writing Assignment:
Is it possible to respect all other religions before knowing in detail what their beliefs are? Why or why not?
Is it possible to respect all other religions if you believe that your religion is the only true religion? (This is a challenging question!)
What is your religious upbringing and background? Describe
NOTE: Please remember that weekly assignments should arrive at the beginning of the following week.
Week Two
Because of the long histories and wide diversities of Native American cultures and societies, the notion of a single Native American religion is deeply problematic. Also, the written sources for a study of Native American religion tend to be relatively recent and Christian, while non-written sources do not impart much information about religious belief and practice.
Nevertheless, a general perspective, based primarily on contemporary Native American religions, is possible. A robust form of animism has produced a cautious and reverent attitude toward nature - in contrast, as many would have it, to the aggressive, dominating attitude of many Europeans. Native American ritual and practice, then, is aimed toward a proper relation between human beings and the spirit world, whether through observance of taboos, peyote rituals, vision quests or the like.
The study of Native American religions must account for the social and political developments of the last 400 years: war with Europeans, conversions to Christianity, various syncretisms, the response of the US government to Native Americans and their religious practices, loss of land, alcoholism and renewed interest in Native American culture and religion.
Chapter Three: African Religions
Similar difficulties attend the study of African religions as attend the study of Native American religions. There is a wide variety of African religious traditions and these defy systemization. There are few written records. Much of the source material that does exist was compiled by Europeans and Americans, whose perceptions were distorted by preconceptions and prejudice. Stereotypes about African religion, whether a belief that it is dark and savage or a belief that African religion is a unified whole, also complicate the effort to teach African religions.
Though there exists among many African religions a formal belief in a High God, it is an animistic conception of nature and a respect for and fear of the spirits of ancestors that are most significant for religious praxis. Sacrifices, for example, are an important element of many African religions and are directed towards spirits and ancestors. Other essential elements include rites of passage, spiritual curers, diviners, and chief-kings.
Other “world” religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam have made significant inroads into Africa. This, along with such colonial legacies as modernization, urbanization and the creation of artificial states, has posed a serious challenge to African religions, which traditionally rely on local and ethnic (not national) distinctions. While the pressure to convert to these “world” religions has thus been great, many Africans have combined Christianity and Islam with traditional religions.
Writing Assignment:
Native American and African religions share a strong belief that animals, rivers, stones and trees are spiritually alive. Read the Native American story of Wooing Wohpe on pp. 47-49 of the text and explain how this story illustrates this point.
Do you think this view is fundamentally different from the Western view of nature as something to be used for man's purpose alone? The Book of Genesis seems to imply that the land was cursed due to Adam's sin? Read this account in Genesis 3:8-24. Does this Biblical story seem different from the Native American one? Elaborate.
Week Three
RELIGIONS ORIGINATING IN INDIA
Chapter Four: Hinduism
Hinduism has an especially long and complex history that stretches over millennia and includes a wide array of cultural influences and responses. The suggested periodization divides this history into four manageable categories: Pre-classical with emphasis on the Aryans; Classical with emphasis on the Vedas; Post-classical with emphasis on the two paths (bhakti-marga "the way of devotion" and jnana-marga "the way of knowledge"); Modern with emphasis on British colonization and interaction with Islam.
Hinduism, perhaps more than any other major world religion, exemplifies an intra-religious pluralism by which many authentic Hindu traditions seem to represent disparate religious perspectives. This raises the synchronic question of whether there is a single, essential Hindu religious understanding (and what it might be) as well as the diachronic question of how religions develop over time.
Social and cultural issues loom large in the study of Hinduism. Hindu religious
concepts such as karma, ahimsa, dharma and the world-denial of moksha and maya have
had profound social consequences. While the caste system is the prime example, others
such as suttee and child marriage also point to an understanding of culture and society
that, according to some, differs sharply from that of the West.
Hindu religious thought has been exceptionally fruitful, producing a very rich textual tradition as well as stimulating the development of new traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism. While historical factors such as contact with Aryans and Muslims and ideological factors such as the inherent tolerance of Hinduism may be invoked to explain such fruitfulness, the issue bears a deeper and wider examination of Hindu insights into the human experience.
Week Four
Chapter Five: Jainism
Though Jainism originated within Hinduism, it is properly understood as a separate though related religion. Jains reject the caste system and the sacred status of the Vedas.They deny the ultimate relevance of gods, worship and sacrifice and instead seek moksha (release from the endless cycle of life and death) through asceticism and ahimsa (non-injury of life).
Jainism, then, has focused narrowly on certain elements of the Hindu tradition: ahimsa and moksha. And by commending a strict ascetical approach to these concepts, Jainism I became a more individualistic religion.
The tenets of Jainism have profound social consequences for Jains. They proscribe certain professions, require a lower view of women and render social and family problematic. At the same time, they promote honesty, truthfulness and respect for life.
Writing Assignment:
Clearly distinguish the two main ways to God in Hinduism, jnana and bhakti (see text, on Postclassical Hinduism, pp. 91-100. Use the selections at the end of the chapter on Hinduism from the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita to illustrate the differences between these two ways. (pp 111-115).
After considering the above two ways, which would reflect your “way to God?” Remember that these two ways reflect the reflective and active personality types (A or B). Try to be honest and reflective in this paragraph, keeping in mind that psychologists say that one personality trait tends to dominate over another. Elaborate.
ISC Research Paper Topic Due – (see suggestions on next page).
Selected Topics in World Religions.
Due Date: 4th Week
NAME: __________________________________
1) Biographical Papers.
___ Asoka
___ Ramakrishna
___ Vivekananda
___ Gandhi
___ Dalai Llama
___ Chuang-Tzu
___ Mo-tzu (or, Mo Ti)
___Zoroaster
___ Isaac Wise
___Abraham Heschel
___ St. Paul
___ St. Augustine
___ St. Thomas Aquinas
___ St. Francis
___ Martin Luther
___ John Calvin
___ Reinhold Niehbuhr
___ Paul Tillich
___ Karl Barth
___ Dietrich Bonhoeffer
___ Billy Graham
___ Joseph Cardinal Bernardin
___ Other _______________________________(name)
Week Five
Chapter Six: Buddhism
As with Jainism, the origins of Buddhism are to be found in the Hindu tradition and, more specifically, with a founder who offered new insights into that tradition by
emphasizing the efficacy of individual effort in fulfilling the ancient Indian quest for
transcendence.
The development of Buddhism after the death of its founder Siddhartha includes the conversion of the Indian monarch Asoka in the third century B.C.E. and subsequent
missionary activity in various parts of Asia. Two major types of Buddhism seem to have
emerged: Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka and southeast Asia, and Mahayana
Buddhism in China, Japan, Korea and Tibet. Buddhism did not fare well in India. Local
varieties of these two major types, then, developed in succeeding centuries, with interest
in Buddhism increasing since WWII.
The basic Buddhist insight is that Nirvana, the ultimate enlightened state, results from the extinguishing or shedding of tanha (craving, desire). This represents a "middle way" between worldliness and asceticism, a shedding of desire by which pain is ultimately overcome.
Missionary efforts brought Buddhist thought and practice to a wide variety of places. The types of Buddhism that have grown up in these places, then, display an equally wide variety. Thus, the Buddhist religious vision with its emphasis on the individual and its solution to human suffering, has proven to be both durable, flexible and-given its recent resurgence in the West-amenable to modern sensibilities.
Week 6
Chapter Seven: Sikhism
Sikhism was born out of an attempt to transcend strife between Hindus and Muslims and to bring their religions together. The result of this attempt was a new faith that could not be fully assimilated to either Hinduism or Islam.
While Sikhism began as an attempt to unify these two religions peacefully, Sikhism developed martial overtones as Muslim and, later, British and Indian authorities sought to contain the growing Sikh movement.
Though Hinduism and Islam are very different, apparently irreconcilable religions, the Sikh synthesis proposed by Kabir and Nanak has proven itself a viable religious alternative. This unlikely marriage, then, raises an interesting question about the natures of these religious visions and the possibility of reinterpreting them.
First movie report also due
Writing Assignment:
Compare Buddha's and Jesus' early lives. After reading about Siddhartha Gautama in your text, (pp. 127 - 132) compare his journey with the beginning of Jesus' in Mark 1:1-13. Do you see similarities and differences on how they began their religious journeys? Does this reflect a fundamental difference in how their adherents see their religious founders?
Then compare Buddha's and Jesus' deaths. Does Buddhism see Buddha's death as a saving act? Then compare Buddha's simple death with the depiction of Jesus' death and resurrection and how it is interpreted by Peter in the Acts of the Apostles 2:22-26. Compare and contrast how you think these differences reflect a fundamental difference in the two religions.
Week Seven
RELIGIONS ORIGINATING IN CHINA AND JAPAN
Chapter Eight: Chinese Religions
The subject 'Chinese religions' includes a wide assortment of elements that have
interacted for thousands of years within the long and complex history of the Chinese
people. Philosophical systems, animistic practices, ethical codes, ancestor worship and
influential foreign religions such as Buddhism have all constituted 'Chinese religion' in
one way or another in various periods. Religious syncretism, then, is an outstanding
feature of Chinese religion.
Taoism and Confucianism are two indigenous movements whose influences on
Chinese religion have been pervasive. Yet some maintain that these are philosophical
systems and not religions. This has complicated the question of what authentic Chinese
religion is or was. Nevertheless, the addition of more traditional religious elements to
these systems seems to warrant their designations as religions.
The history of religion in China must be understood against the backdrop of Chinese political and social history. From the rebellion of Chou warriors against the Shang dynasty, to the many religious responses to the decline of feudalism, to the rise of
Communism in the 20th century, Chinese religion has both influenced and been
influenced by political and social change.
Chapter Nine: Shinto
Because it encompasses a variety of beliefs and practices, ranging from ancestor
worship to religious nationalism to reverence for nature, Shinto is hard to define.
Even the name Shinto (Chinese for "way of the gods") reflects the high degree of
foreign and especially Chinese influence on native Japanese religion. Though influenced
deeply by Chinese culture, especially Buddhism and Confucianism, Shinto ultimately
came to be identified with "authentic" Japanese culture and, later, Japanese nationalism.
The history of Shinto includes an ancient, underlying Japanese mythology that is
centered on the activity of the kami (gods, spirits or god-like beings). The encounter with
Buddhism, beginning in the sixth century C.E., left new religious forms such as Ryobu
and Zen Buddhism in its wake, and it also saw new efforts to preserve native Japanese
religion. Shinto and religions of foreign origin, then, coexisted for centuries in Japan, but
distinct periods such as the Tokugawa regime (1600-1867) and the Meiji era (1868-1912)
saw Shinto emerge as the official, state religion. In fact, the link between Shinto and
Japanese nationalism was so strong that the Allies felt compelled to abolish state support
for Shinto after WWII.
Though most Japanese today consider themselves Buddhist, Shinto has remained vital and relevant by adopting new emphases such as faith healing and positive thinking and also by connecting Japanese to their past.
Writing Assignment:
Read the following selection from the Tao Te Ching. This selection stresses the Taoist
belief in the passive virtues of humility and patience, in the non-interference with nature.
Taoist literature often stresses the belief that if we live our lives in harmony with
nature, and not abuse it, we will be happy.
The softest things in this world
May be harder than the hardest
Soft water can wear away the hardest rock;
Soft water can go through the strongest calm.
Knowing this, I know the value of calm.
Knowing this, I know the value of patience.
Knowing this, I know the value of persistence. (XLIII)
Compare this with Jesus' message in the Sermon on the Mount, in particular, the
Beatitudes (Matthew 5:1-18), where Jesus stresses such passive virtues as humility and
meekness. Do you think there is a common ground between Christianity and Taoism in
this regard? Compare the two indicated selections. What similarities and differences do
you see in the two selections? Elaborate.
MIDTERM ASSIGNMENT DUE
Week Nine
RELIGIONS ORIGINATING IN THE MIDDLE EAST
Chapter Ten: Zoroastrianism
Despite its small size (only 250,000 adherents today), Zoroastrianism holds an
important place among world religions. Because of its considerable antiquity,
thoroughgoing monotheism, and distinctive eschatology, many believe that Zoroastrianism sheds light on the origins of Judaism and Christianity.
Zoroastrianism was apparently well established among the Persians before the rise of the Persian empire in the sixth century B.C.E., but it was during this imperial period that Zoroastrianism enjoyed a wide distribution. It declined during the Hellenistic period and the Roman empire. Zoroastrianism was resurgent under the Sassanid rulers of Persia in the third through seventh centuries C.E., but again declined with the rise of Islam.
Though diminished and partially exiled to India, the Zoroastrian community has
preserved its system of belief and practice through the centuries.
One of the most notable features of Zoroastrian teaching is a kind of dualism by which a Beneficent Spirit and an Evil Spirit both emanate from the One God Ahura Mazda and vie for control of the world. This extends to a dual afterlife - a heaven and a hell that await the righteous and the wicked. The problem of evil has vexed monotheistic
religions for millennia; Zoroastrianism deals with this clearly and directly - though
perhaps, in the eyes of critics, not satisfactorily.
Writing Assignment
Describe the influence of Zoroastrianism on Judaism, Christianity and Islam. What is your assessment of this evolution in religious thought?
Weeks Ten & Eleven
Chapter Eleven: Judaism
The history of Judaism, though rich and complex, may be divided into periods: the biblical period (patriarchs, exodus, Israelite monarchies, exile and return); the post-
biblical period (beginnings of Diaspora Judaism; synagogue; development of Mishnah
and Talmud); medieval Judaism (Maimonides, encounters with Muslims and European
Christians, Kabbalah); and Judaism in the modern world (Hasidism, Reform Judaism
Zionism, Holocaust, the state of Israel and orthodox Judaism).
A central issue in the study of Judaism is the question of Jewish identity: what does it mean to be a Jew? Who is a Jew? The concept of Jewishness has had, at various times and places and to varying degrees, religious, ethnic, social, cultural and political
dimensions. The definition of Jewishness is thus a contested one.
The history of Judaism is often told in terms of the survival of the Jewish people.
Political and social developments, from the return from exile in the 6th century B.C.E. to
the cohesiveness of European Jews in the middle ages to the establishment of the modern
state of Israel, have all been seen in a religious light. As divine providence has been
discerned in these events and others, it has been difficult to separate the political from the
religious. This is consistent with a biblical and Jewish notion that history may be seen as
the stage upon which the divine drama is played out.
Some have said that it is more proper to speak of Judaisms than of Judaism. There
exists a wide variety of beliefs and practices associated with Judaism and Jewishness. As
with other internally plural religions, the effort to define the essence of Judaism can be
problematic.
Even so, monotheism may be seen as central to the various Jewish traditions. As
monotheism was transmitted to the West through Judaism (and not, for example, through
Zoroastrianism) and its offspring, Christianity and Islam, the Hebrews are credited with
providing the other pillar upon which Western civilization rests (Greeks and Romans
having provided the first).
Field Trip Report due, Week 10
Writing Assignment, Week 11
Amos spoke out against the injustices of the Northern Kings of Israel. He set the tone for centuries of prophetical figures in both Judaism and Christianity. A central theme of the prophetical tradition is social justice. Read Amos 2:6-16; 5:14-15 in this regard. Do you think the Christian churches have done enough with regard to social inequality, poverty, injustice, etc. What one issue do you think should be addressed today?
Jeremiah is one of the great tragic figures of the Bible. He answers to God's call, but reluctantly. He is a figure of monumental faith despite repeated failures. Read Jeremiah 1:4-10 in this regard. Write a paragraph describing a difficult moment in your life. Why was the situation difficult? How did you respond? Did your faith in a higher power help you or not in this decision? Feel free to be frank and honest.
Weeks Twelve & Thirteen
Chapter Twelve: Christianity
The history of Christianity is extremely rich and the amount of resources and materials for constructing that history is appropriately vast. Though many historical
schematizations are thus possible, this basic one may be used: 1) Jewish, Roman and
Hellenistic backgrounds; 2) the life of Jesus; 3) the New Testament and the early Church;
4) Constantine and the Christianization of the Roman empire; 5) the widening rift
between the Eastern and Western churches; 6) medieval Chrisitianity; 7) the Protestant
Reformation; 8) modern Catholicism, Protestantism and Orthodoxy.
An area of growing scholarly interest is the relationship between the early Church and its Jewish forebears. The New Testament, in many ways, exemplifies Jewish religious concepts and Jewish exegesis; the Jewishness of Jesus has also been emphasized. It is thus possible to describe a level of continuity between Judaism and Christianity. Ultimately, though, this must be done with a proper acknowledgement of their fundamental differences, even their irreconcilability.
Another area of recent scholarly interest has been the figure of Jesus. Various
descriptions of him ranging from peasant cynic to political revolutionary have been
offered. The life and teachings of Jesus, then, bear close examination, especially in light
of the fact that he alone stands at the center of the bewildering array of Christian
traditions.
As with Judaism, the history of Christianity is as political as it is religious.
Throughout its two millennia, theological and doctrinal differences have led to schisms
and divisions that have had profound social and political consequences. It is possible,
then, for a study of Christianity to lead to an examination of the role of religion in human
history and, from there, the role of religion in contemporary society. This is perhaps all
the more needful as certain discussions of religious tolerance and religious pluralism have
served to trivialize and diminish the role of religion in a day and age when religious strife
still bears powerful testimony to the centrality of religion in human experience.
The centrality of Christianity to Western civilization provides yet more perspectives from which to examine the claims and contexts of Christianity: art, art history, philosophy, music, literature, political history, political theory and so on.
Film Report 2 due, Week 12
Writing Assignment, Week 13
Christianity claims that Jesus is totally unique, unlike any who lived before or after him.
What specifically do you see as unique about him? Why, in your opinion, has the account
of his life and teaching dominated Western civilization and given rise to new converts in
Africa and Asia today?
But the history of Christianity also shows a tendency to split into a staggering number of
Christian denominations and traditions. Protestantism, in particular, split into more than
two hundred separate denominations, from the Anglican (or, Episcopalian) High Church
to the simple life of the Mennonites and Amish. It has also given birth to such unique
American denominations as the Mormons, Seventh-Day Adventists, and Jehovah
Witnesses. The leads to the question whether or not there is one "essential" (or true)
tradition in Christianity. Can Christianity be boiled down to only one denomination? Or
do you think the proliferation of denominations simply reflects the impossibility of
containing the truth of Christianity in one "essential" organization and one "essential"
creed? Elaborate.
Week Fourteen
Chapter Thirteen: Islam
As one of the youngest of the world's major religions, Islam originated and developed
in a Middle Eastern milieu otherwise dominated by Judaism and Christianity. Islam,
then, has relied on a Judeo-Christian religious tradition while claiming, at the same time,
to reform and complete that tradition.
A proper understanding of the nature and centrality of the Qur'an is essential. It was
dictated to a more or less passive Muhammad and thus represents for Muslims the
pristine word of God-immutable, irrevocable, unimpeachable and untranslatable. The
theological counterpart to this view of scripture is perhaps the Muslim view of Allah:
omnipresent, omniscient and omnipotent.
The sacred status of the Qur'an and the thoroughgoing monotheism articulated by
Muhammad are the basis for Muslim belief and practice. They find expression in a rather
simple and compact set of guidelines that summarize Muslim devotion: the so-called Five
Pillars.
Islam, at its most basic level, has a simple creed and a compact devotional program.
These do not depend in any way on race or nationality, and the absolute monotheism of
Islam may be said to be the basis for inter-ethnic and international unity. This has made
Islam one of the great missionary religions of the world and explains why it has found
success on nearly every continent.
One of the crucial issues facing the study of Islam is the interface between religion
and politics. World-wide fears of Islamic fundamentalism and the terrorist activity to
which it has at times been linked require the teacher to approach the subject carefully.
While elements of the history of Islam and the present understanding of certain militant
Muslims have undeniably martial overtones, other exemplars of the Muslim tradition
place themselves at some remove from notions of violent religious conquest and rule.
Chapter Fourteen: Baha'i
Though global in scope and inclusive in belief, Baha'i grew out of the particular
historical context of 19th century Shi'ite Islam.
The unity which Baha’i claims for the world’s religions is based on a notion of continuous, progressive revelation, and the belief that the missions of the Messengers of God (including Moses, Muhammed, Buddha, etc.) represent successive stages in the spiritual growth of humanity, ideas which may be difficult to reconcile with individual creeds.
Baha'i advocates a rationalistic, egalitarian social and political program in conjunction
with its religious message.
Assignment: Research Paper due, Week 14
Week Fifteen
Final Exam Due
Close of the Semester
Field Trip Report
As part of this course on World Religions students are asked to visit a church service different than their own. Students are free to visit any service not their own – Protestant, Catholic, Orthodox, Jewish, Muslim, Buddhist, or Hindu – and answer the following questions in approximately 200 words. This assignment is worth 10% of the total grade and will be based on accuracy and thoroughness. While some questions may not apply, try to answer as many as possible. Feel free to add any thoughts and/or feelings you had after the visit.
Format: Name of church:
________ Place:
________ Date:
1. Did the exterior of the church seem to add to the overall religious feeling of the visit?
Did the architecture of the building lend itself to worship?
2. Describe the nature of the church service you saw? This will probably be the longest
section of the report, so be as thorough as possible. What was the theme of the
sermon for that day? Were there any rituals that struck you as different from your
own? Describe.
3. What were your overall reactions to the service? Positive or negative? Did any
members of the congregation talk to you, and, if they did, what was the nature of
the conversation?
Was this an interesting assignment for you? Please feel free to be honest. Elaborate on your visit as much as possible. The more you say the more I can judge how much you observed and put into the assignment.
While this assignment is not due until the near end of the course, I encourage you to do it before that official date. Since the Research Paper is due at approximately the same time, you might want to get this assignment out of the way early. I look forward to your reports. This is not a formal paper, but an informal response to the above discussions. Please number your answers for ease of reading.
May your church visit be a reflective and good experience!
Film Report One
A passage to India ****
Pg. 160 m., 1984
Judy Davis (Adela Quested), Victor Banerjee (Dr. Aziz), Peggy Ashcroft (Mrs. Moore), Alec Guinness (Godbole) James Fox (Fielding), Nigel Havers (Ronny Heaslop). Directed by David Lean and produced by John Brabourne and Richard Goodwin. Screenplay by Lean.
.
By Roger Ebert
Only connect!
E.M. Forster
That is the advice he gives us in Howards End, and then, in A Passage to India, he creates a world in which there are no connections, where Indians and Englishmen speak the same language but do not understand each other, where it doesn’t matter what you say in the famous Marabar Caves, since all that comes back is a hollow, mocking, echo. Forster’s novel is one of the literary landmarks of this century, and now David Lean has made it into one of the greatest screen adaptations I have ever seen.
Great novels do not usually translate well to the screen. They are too filled with ambiguities, and movies have a way of making all their images seem like literal fact. A Passage to India is especially tricky, because the central event in the novel is something that happens offstage, or never happens at all – take your choice. On a hot, muggy day, the eager Dr. Aziz leads an expedition to the Marabar Caves. One by one, members of the party drop out, until finally only Miss Quested, from England, is left. And so the Indian man and the British woman climb the last path alone, at a time when England’s rule of India was based on an ingrained, semiofficial racism, and some British, at least, nodded approvingly at Kipling’s “East is East, and West is West, and never the twain shall meet.”
In Forster’s novel, it is never clear exactly what it was that happened to Miss Quested after she wandered alone into one of the caves. David Lean’s film leaves that question equally open. But because he is dealing with a visual medium, he cannot make it a mystery where Dr. Aziz is at the time; if you are offstage in a novel, you can be anywhere, but if you are offstage in a movie, you are definitely not where the camera is looking. So in the film version we know, or think we know, that Dr. Aziz is innocent of the charges later brought against him – of the attempted rape of Miss Quested.
The charges and the trial fill the second half of Lean’s A Passage to India. Lean brings us to that point by a series of perfectly modulated, quietly tension-filled scenes in which Miss Quested (Judy Davis) and the kindly Mrs. Moore (Peggy Ashcroft) sail to India, where Miss Quested is engaged to marry the priggish local British magistrate in a provincial backwater. Both women want to see the “real India” – a wish that is either completely lacking among the locals, or is manfully repressed. Mrs. Moore goes walking by a temple pool by moonlight, and meets the earnest young Dr. Aziz, who is captivated by her gentle kindness. Miss Quested wanders by accident into the ruins of another temple, populated by sensuous and erotic statuary, tumbled together, overgrown by vegetation.
Miss Quested’s temple visit is not in Forster, but has been added by Lean (who wrote his own screenplay). It accomplishes just what it needed, suggesting that in Miss Quested the forces of sensuality and repression run a great deal more deeply than her sexually constipated fiancé is ever likely to suspect. Meanwhile, we meet some of the other local characters, including Dr. Godbole (Alec Guinness), who meets every crisis with perfect equanimity, and who believes that what will be, will be. This philosophy sounds like recycled fortune cookies but turns out, in the end, to have been the simple truth. We also meet Fielding (James Fox), one of those tall, lonely, middle-aged Englishmen who hang about the edges of stories set in the Empire, waiting until their destiny commands them to take a firm stand.
Lean places these characters in one of the most beautiful canvases he has ever drawn (and this is the man who directed Doctor Zhivago and Lawrence of Arabia). He doesn’t see the India of travel posters and lurid postcards, but the India of a Victorian water-colorist like Edward Lear, who placed enigmatic little human figures here and there in spectacular landscapes that never seemed to be quite finished. Lean makes India look like an amazing, beautiful place that an Englishman can never quite put his finger on – which is, of course, the lesson Miss Quested learns in the caves.
David Lean is a meticulous craftsman, famous for going to any lengths to make every shot look just the way he thinks it should. His actors here are encouraged to give sound, thoughtful, unflashy performances (Guinness strains at the bit), and his screenplay is a model of clarity: By the end of this movie we know these people so well, and understand them so thoroughly, that only the most reckless among us would want to go back and have a closer look at those caves.
**********
After reading Roger Ebert’s review of A Passage to India (above), please answer the following questions:
Question 1: This film depicts the class of cultures which very few Englishmen (or, women) were able to overcome. Select one of the two female lead characters, Mrs. Moore or Adela Quested, and describe how they attempted to bridge this gap. Of the two, which one do you think truly tried to understand the Indian people?
Question 2: A key scene in the movie occurs when Miss Quested stumbles into a crumbling Indian temple. What do you think Lean (the director) was trying to accomplish with this scene (note Ebert’s comments in the fifth paragraph). Hindu spirituality is often depicted in a very sensual way; how do you account for this? Do you think Western religion lost something by “suppressing” this element of religion? Were the English unable to understand this aspect of Indian spirituality?
Question 3: What do you think happened in the Marabar Caves? Were the charges against Dr. Aziz true or false?
Question 4: What was your overall reaction to this film? Be honest.
Elizabeth